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Sambucus nigra: black elderberry

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Source: Wikipedia

Sambucus nigra
Shrub in flower
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom:Plantae
Clade:Tracheophytes
Clade:Angiosperms
Clade:Eudicots
Clade:Asterids
Order:Dipsacales
Family:Viburnaceae
Genus:Sambucus
Species:
S. nigra
Binomial name
Sambucus nigra
Sambucus nigra is native to the Azores, Europe, and the Middle East[2]

Sambucus nigra is a temperate species of tree or shrub in the family Viburnaceae native to the Azores, Europe, and the Middle East.[2] Common names include elder, elderberry, black elder, European elder, European elderberry, and European black elderberry.[3][4] It grows in a variety of conditions including both wet and dry fertile soils, primarily in sunny locations. The plant is widely grown as an ornamental shrub or small tree.

Both the flowers and the berries have a long tradition of culinary use, primarily for cordial and wine.[5] Although the plant is commonly used in dietary supplements and traditional medicine, there is no clinical evidence that it provides any health effect.

Description

Elderberry is a deciduous shrub or small tree growing to 6 metres (20 ft) tall and wide,[5] rarely reaching 10 m (33 ft) tall. The bark, light gray when young, changes to a coarse gray outer bark with lengthwise furrowing, lenticels prominent.[6] The leaves are arranged in opposite pairs, 10–30 centimetres (4–12 inches) long, pinnate with five to seven (rarely nine) leaflets, the leaflets 5–12 cm (2–4+3⁄4 in) long and 3–5 cm (1+1⁄4–2 in) broad, with a serrated margin. The young stems are hollow.[7]

The hermaphroditic flowers have five stamens,[8] which are borne in large, flat corymbs 10–25 cm in diameter in late spring to mid-summer. The individual flowers are ivory white, 5–6 millimetres (3⁄16–1⁄4 in) in diameter, with five petals, and are pollinated by flies.[citation needed]

The fruit is a glossy, dark purple to black berry 3–5 mm diameter, produced in drooping clusters in late autumn.[5] The dark color of elderberry fruit results from its rich phenolic content, particularly from anthocyanins.[9]

Taxonomy

Subspecies

There are several other closely related species, native to Asia and North America, which are similar, and sometimes treated as subspecies of Sambucus nigra, including S. nigra subsp. canadensis[10] and S. nigra subsp. cerulea.[11]

Etymology

The Latin specific epithet nigra means "black", and refers to the deeply dark colour of the berries.[12] The English term for the tree is not believed to come from the word "old", but from the Anglo Saxon æld, meaning fire, because the hollow stems of the branches were used as bellows to blow air into a fire.[13]

Distribution and habitat

Sambucus nigra is native to Europe as far east as Turkey.[2] It is native in, and common throughout, the British Isles.[14] It has been introduced to parts of most other continents of the world.[2]

S. nigra grows in a wide range of habitats, including woodland, grassland, hedgerows, scrub, river banks, roadsides, railway banks and waste ground.[15] It is generally associated with open or disturbed, nutrient-rich sites, such as woodland edges, forest gaps, abandoned fields and urban areas; it is not tolerant of drought and avoids saline soils.[16]

Ecology

Like other elderberries, S. nigra is subject to elder whitewash fungus and jelly ear fungus. Strong-scented flowers in wild populations of S. nigra attract numerous, minute flower thrips which may contribute to the transfer of pollen between inflorescences.[17]

Wildlife value

Elder rates as fair to good forage for animals such as mule deer, elk, sheep, and small birds. The fruit are an important food for many fruit-eating birds, notably blackcaps. Ripe elderberries are a food for migrating band-tailed pigeons in northern California, which may sometimes strip an entire bush in a short time.[citation needed]

Except for the flowers and ripe berries (but including the ripe seeds), all parts of the plant are poisonous to mammals, containing the cyanogenic glycoside sambunigrin (C14H17NO6, CAS number 99–19–4).[18] The bark contains calcium oxalate crystals.[citation needed]

Cultivation

S. nigra is grown as an ornamental shrub or small tree, especially in informal hedges, wildlife gardens and mixed borders. The species is also cultivated commercially for flowers and fruit.[19] It is vigorous and adaptable, growing in sun or partial shade although it performs poorly in deep shade or dry conditions.[20] It tolerates both wet and dry soils from sand to clay, but grows best on well-drained, organic-rich, slightly acidic soils, about pH 6.0–6.5.[citation needed] Plants for commercial plantations are usually propagated from own-rooted hardwood cuttings taken from one-year-old shoots. Propagation from seed is less common because seedlings are variable and the seeds have dormancy requirements. Weed control is important during establishment, as black elder competes poorly with other plants.

Some selections and cultivars have variegated or coloured leaves and other distinctive qualities, and are grown as ornamental plants. S. nigra f. porphyrophylla has dark maroon or black leaves, and pale pink flowers.[citation needed] Leaf colour in purple- or golden-leaved cultivars is usually strongest in full sun. Garden plants need little pruning, but established plants can be hard pruned in late winter or early spring to restrict size or encourage fresh ornamental foliage. In commercial orchards, dormant pruning is usually begun from the second year, removing dead, damaged or diseased wood and stems older than three years, as productivity declines on four-year-old branches. Annual coppicing to ground level is generally not recommended since most commercial cultivars do not fruit on first-year canes.[citation needed]

The following cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:[21]

  • S. nigra f. laciniata (cut-leaved elder)[22]
  • S. nigra f. porphyrophylla 'Eva'[23] ('Black Lace')[24]
  • S. nigra f. porphyrophylla 'Gerda'[25]

Toxicity

Components of the elderberry plant, including its fruit, contain diverse phytochemicals, such as alkaloids, lectins, and cyanogenic glycosides, which may be toxic if consumed raw.[9] The seeds and all green parts of the plant contain cyanogenic glycosides.[26] Consumption of berries, leaves, bark or stems, if not properly prepared, may cause nausea, vomiting, and severe diarrhea.[9][26][27] Elderberry plant constituents or products should not be consumed during pregnancy or by people with allergies or gastrointestinal diseases.[9][27] Elderberry products may cause adverse effects when used with prescription drugs.[9][27]

Uses

The dark blue or purple berries are mildly poisonous in their raw state, but are edible after cooking.[26][28] They can be used to make jam, jelly,[28] chutney, and Pontack sauce. In Scandinavia and Germany, soup made from the elderberry (e.g. the German Fliederbeersuppe) is a traditional meal.[29]

Commonly, the flowerheads are used in infusions, giving a drink in Northern Europe and the Balkans. These drinks are sold commercially as elderflower cordial or elderflower pressé.[30] In Europe, the flowers are made into a syrup or cordial (in Romanian: socată, in Swedish: fläder(blom)saft, in Danish: hyldeblomstsaft / hyldedrik), which is diluted with water before drinking. The popularity of this traditional drink recently has encouraged some commercial soft drink producers to introduce elderflower-flavoured drinks (Fanta Shokata, Freaky Fläder). The flowers also may be dipped into a light batter and then fried to make elderflower fritters.[31]

The berries may be made into elderberry wine.[28] In Hungary, an elderberry brandy is made that requires 50 kilograms of fruit to produce 1 litre of brandy. In south-western Sweden, it is traditional to make a snaps liqueur flavoured with elderflower. Elderflowers are used in liqueurs such as St-Germain, and in a mildly alcoholic sparkling elderflower 'champagne', although a more alcoholic home-made version can be made.[citation needed]

Traditional medicine

This plant is used in traditional medicine by Indigenous peoples and herbalists.[9][26][32] Extracts of the flowers and fruits are marketed to relieve cold and flu symptoms,[9][26] with limited research indicating effectiveness for such symptoms.[9][26] There is insufficient high-quality clinical evidence to establish its efficacy for the treatment of any disease.[33][34]

The European Union's Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products (HMPC) has established a monograph for Sambucus nigra flower. The current monograph recognizes traditional use of Sambucus nigra for relief of early symptoms of the common cold. The HMPC states that "although there is insufficient evidence from clinical trials, the effectiveness of these herbal medicines is plausible and there is evidence that they have been used safely in this way for at least 30 years."[33]

FDA warning letters

Between 2021 and 2023, the US Food and Drug Administration issued 18 warning letters to American supplement companies falsely advertising elderberry products intended to treat diseases.[35] The main category of the warnings was for the marketing of "unapproved new and misbranded drugs".[35]

A typical warning letter stated that the "products are not generally recognized as safe and effective for the above referenced uses and, therefore, the products are “new drugs”... which "may not be legally introduced or delivered for introduction into interstate commerce without prior approval from FDA", and that a new drug is approved "on the basis of scientific data and information demonstrating that the drug is safe and effective".[36]

References

  1. ↑ Bilz, M. (2026). "Sambucus nigra (Europe assessment)". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2026 e.T61684A209127483. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2026-1.RLTS.T61684A209127483.en. Retrieved 14 September 2026.
  2. 1 2 3 4 "Sambucus nigra L." Plants of the World Online. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 10 February 2022.
  3. ↑ "Sambucus nigra". Integrated Taxonomic Information System.
  4. ↑ "Plants profile for Sambucus nigra L. (black elderberry)". Natural Resources Conservation Service, US Department of Agriculture. 2023. Retrieved 13 June 2023.
  5. 1 2 3 RHS A-Z encyclopedia of garden plants. United Michael and Vikram: Dorling Kindersley. 2008. ISBN 978-1405332965.
  6. ↑ Clapham, A.R., Tutin, T.G. and Warburg, E.F. 1968 Excursion Flora of the British Isles Second Edition Cambridge.ISBN 0-521-04656-4
  7. ↑ Vedel, H. and Lange, J. 1971. Trees and Bushes in Wood and Hedgerow. p. 196. Methuen and Co. Ltd. ISBN 0416-61780-8
  8. ↑ Parnell, J. and Curtis, T. 2012. Webb's An Irish Flora. Cork University Press. ISBN 978-185918-4783
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 "Elderberry". Drugs.com. 9 December 2025. Retrieved 6 June 2026.
  10. ↑ "Sambucus mexicana". Calflora. Retrieved 2012-07-16.
  11. ↑ "Sambucus nigra ssp. caerulea". Calflora. Retrieved 2012-07-16.
  12. ↑ Harrison, Lorraine (2012). RHS Latin for Gardeners. United Kingdom: Mitchell Beazley. ISBN 978-1845337315.
  13. ↑ "Elder (Sambucus nigra) - British trees -". Woodland Trust. Retrieved 3 November 2017.
  14. ↑ "Sambucus nigra". Online Atlas of the British and Irish Flora. Biological Records Centre and Botanical Society of Britain and Ireland. Archived from the original on 2022-02-11. Retrieved 10 February 2022.
  15. ↑ Bilz, M. (2020). "Sambucus nigra". The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN. p. e.T61684A88328586. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-1.RLTS.T61684A88328586.en. Retrieved 6 June 2026.
  16. ↑ Enescu, C. M.; Houston Durrant, T.; Caudullo, G. (2016). "Sambucus nigra in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats" (PDF). In San-Miguel-Ayanz, J.; de Rigo, D.; Caudullo, G.; Houston Durrant, T.; Mauri, A. (eds.). European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union. pp. e013c0f+. Retrieved 6 June 2026.
  17. ↑ Scott-Brown, A.S.; Arnold, S.E.J.; Kite, G.C.; Farrell, I.; Farman, D.I.; Collins, D.W.; Stevenson, P.C. (2019). "Mechanisms in mutualisms: A chemically mediated thrips pollination strategy in common elder" (PDF). Planta. 250 (1): 367–379. Bibcode:2019Plant.250..367S. doi:10.1007/s00425-019-03176-5. PMID 31069523. S2CID 253886497.
  18. ↑ Campa C, Schmitt-Kopplin P, Cataldi TR, Bufo SA, Freitag D, Kettrup A (2000). "Analysis of cyanogenic glycosides by micellar capillary electrophoresis". Journal of Chromatography B. 739 (1): 95–100. doi:10.1016/S0378-4347(99)00375-8. PMID 10744317.
  19. ↑ Vojtěch, Holubec; Tamara, Smekalova; František, Paprštein; Lenka, Štočková; Vojtěch, Řezníček (2015). "Potential of Minor Fruit Crop Wild Relatives (CWR) as New Crops in Breeding for Market Diversification". Crop Wild Relatives and Climate Change. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 310. ISBN 1118854373.
  20. ↑ "How to grow Sambucus". Royal Horticultural Society. 2026. Retrieved 6 June 2026.
  21. ↑ "AGM Plants - Ornamental" (PDF). Royal Horticultural Society. July 2017. p. 95. Retrieved 21 October 2018.
  22. ↑ "Sambucus nigra f. laciniata / RHS Gardening". Apps.rhs.org.uk. Retrieved 2021-03-06.
  23. ↑ "RHS Plantfinder - Sambucus nigra 'Eva'". Retrieved 21 October 2018.
  24. ↑ ""Sambucus" 'Black Lace'". RHS. Retrieved 2 June 2024.
  25. ↑ "Sambucus nigra f. porphyrophylla 'Gerda'". Apps.rhs.org.uk. Retrieved 2021-03-06.
  26. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "European elder". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Institutes of Health. 1 November 2024. Retrieved 6 June 2026.
  27. 1 2 3 "Elderberry". Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center. 2020. Retrieved 11 July 2020.
  28. 1 2 3 Fagan, Damian (2019). Wildflowers of Oregon: A Field Guide to Over 400 Wildflowers, Trees, and Shrubs of the Coast, Cascades, and High Desert. Guilford, CT: FalconGuides. p. 16. ISBN 978-1-4930-3633-2. OCLC 1073035766.
  29. ↑ Jørgensen, Ulla; Hansen, Merete; Christensen, Lars P.; Jensen, Karina; Kaack, Karl (2000-05-12). "Olfactory and Quantitative Analysis of Aroma Compounds in Elder Flower (Sambucus nigra L.) Drink Processed from Five Cultivars". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 48 (6): 2376–2383. Bibcode:2000JAFC...48.2376J. doi:10.1021/jf000005f. ISSN 0021-8561. PMID 10888553.
  30. ↑ Kikbracken, J. 1995. Easy way guide Trees. Larousse.
  31. ↑ Mabey, Richard (2012). Food for free. London: Collins. p. 83. ISBN 978-0-00-743847-1. OCLC 761378530.
  32. ↑ "Sambucus nigra: Elderberry - European Elder, Black elderberry, American black elderberry, Blue elderberry". Plants for a Future. Retrieved 13 October 2017.
  33. 1 2 "Sambuci flos - herbal medicinal product". European Medicines Agency. Retrieved 13 September 2026.
  34. ↑ "The Common Cold and Complementary Health Approaches: What the Science Says". NCCIH. Retrieved 13 September 2026.
  35. 1 2 "FDA warning letters (search "elderberry" by years)". Inspections, Compliance, Enforcement, and Criminal Investigations, US Food and Drug Administration. 2026. Retrieved 11 September 2026.
  36. ↑ "Warning letter: EarthLab, Inc., dba Wise Woman Herbals". Inspections, Compliance, Enforcement, and Criminal Investigations, US Food and Drug Administration. 27 April 2023. Retrieved 11 September 2026.

Further reading

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